BSc (Hons) Archaeology

Core units

• Introduction to Archaeology and Anthropology: The unit will introduce you to these two disciplines. Assuming no prior knowledge, the unit addresses the history and emergence of Archaeology and Anthropology (both social anthropology and biological anthropology) as academic disciplines and provide an overview of the key concepts and themes of archaeology and social anthropology. 

• Responsible Research in Archaeology & Anthropology: This unit aims to provide the core knowledge and skills required for your time at university and your future career. You will develop the critical thinking, independent learning, and transferable skills necessary for undergraduate study and life beyond university. Including how to conduct responsible research and ethics of working with cultural and human data. 

• The Human Past: You will find out about the chronological framework that supports archaeological understanding and interpretation and gain an understanding of the different periods spanning the entire duration of our species. The unit also covers current techniques in dating and what methods are appropriate for use with different archaeological materials.

• Practical Archaeology: This unit aims to provide you with a framework of knowledge and skills essential to the aspiring archaeologist practicing within the modern professional discipline of archaeology.  You will learn how data derived from field situations and that recovered from archived sources are connected and are part of the on-going analytical process of refinement and reinvestigation. 

• Material Worlds: In this unit you will learn the theory and practice of materiality and material studies. You will be introduced to a range of materials, their core methods and techniques of recording, measurement, and analysis, and their importance to the interpretation of peoples and societies.

• Debates in Archaeology and Anthropology: Archaeology and anthropology are all about understanding the lives of people - in the past and in the present. It allows us to understand the practices and processes that shaped past societies, and enable us to explore the relationships human individuals and communities. Archaeology and Anthropology impact the present; not only do perceptions of our history and our place in the world contribute to our sense of identity today, but understanding how people in the past, and how other present-day cultures around the world, responded and continue to respond to crises and challenges can also inform on how we tackle issues critical to everyone right now. In this unit we will immerse you in some of the key arguments and discussions that are taking place in these disciplines.

Core units

• Artefact Studies: Gain practical experience of artefact studies, including an understanding of the planning, management, and documentation of artefacts within a post-excavation process.

• Archaeological Field Skills: This unit will provide you with a practical understanding of the aims, strategies, and methods of investigative fieldwork relevant to archaeology. It combines and contextualises this through practical participation in a fieldwork training project and introduces you to the principles of post-excavation practice. 

• Research Skills: Learn how to become an effective researcher, gaining the critical skills needed to design and carry out your L6 Independent Research Project (IRP).

Option units (choose three):

• Becoming Human: What makes us (as humans) unique? Where did our species come from? Starting from the divergence of the human lineage from that of other apes, this unit will demonstrate how a wide variety of different lines of evidence can inform the way in which we became human. You will learn how archaeologists and anthropologists interpret the fossil and archaeological evidence to understand the ways in which our ancestors and related species lived and how this changed over time. A key focus throughout will be on the relationship between the biological and social environments for evolution, and how the interaction between them influenced the evolution not only of our distinctive biological life histories, subsistence and foraging patterns but also our social life and culture, in the form of technology, material culture, language and symbolism.

• Principles of Biological Anthropology: This unit introduces you to the range of practical skills available to enable biological anthropologists to understand the basic principles of human physiological adaptation to their natural and cultural environments across both past and contemporary contexts.

• Environmental Archaeology: Gain an overview of how people in the past interacted with their environment and how they exploited environmental resources. You’ll be introduced to a variety of different types of evidence for example, archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological remains, and will gain an understanding of how archaeologists sample, analyse and interpret environmental samples and assemblages.

• Applied Geophysical Survey: During this unit you’ll be provided with the knowledge, skills and experience to plan, execute and report on geophysical surveys using the principal geophysical techniques. Field trips will provide you with the opportunity to put your knowledge into practice. 

• Geomatics and GIS: You will gain both a theoretical and practical understanding of the key digital survey techniques in current use within archaeology and allied disciplines.

• Hunters, Farmers, and Heroes: Social and Cultural trajectories in late Prehistoric Europe: You’ll be introduced to the chronological development and associated key thematic studies for the Later Prehistory of Europe, including the following archaeological periods: Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages. 

• Contemporary Theory in Archaeology and Anthropology: You’ll be introduced to the key themes, debates and philosophical/ontological frameworks and positions that underpin contemporary disciplinary practices and perspectives, building upon the historical perspectives examined in L4 Introduction to Archaeology And Anthropology.

• Scientific Diving: This unit provides you with both a theoretical and practical understanding of scientific diving and working in the marine environment, achieved through a combination of detailed lectures and regular practical sessions. 

• Working with Cultural Heritage: Explore how the past is used in the present, what we choose to take from the past and carry forward into the future, how places and things develop and project cultural values, and how cultural heritage is used and presented in a range of different contexts.

• Open Curriculum Elective:

• Rome & Barbarian Europe: In this unit you will be taught primarily by illustrated lectures. The lecture programme will be delivered in two consecutive strands comprising the ‘Golden Age’ of the Roman Empire (1st – 3rd Centuries AD) and the Later Empire with its changing cultural reference points. Field visits will be made to British sites of significance to the periods under study, laying stress upon their importance to the historic environment. The unit provides a chronological and topographical framework within which you will develop an understanding of the history, archaeological impact, key sites, monuments, belief-systems, artistic expression, political complexity, fashions and environment of the Roman Empire from the 1st Century to the 7th Century AD in its wider European, African and Asian context. The complex interrelationship between the classical world and that of, so-called ‘barbarian’ (Celtic/Germanic/Scandinavian/Slavic) people of north and Eastern Europe will, in particular, be studied from the standpoint of history, archaeology and geography. Key to the unit will be the analysis and understanding of and cultural diversification and change.

Please note that option units require minimum numbers in order to run and may only be available on a semester by semester basis. They may also change from year to year.

You may choose to complete an optional 30-week minimum work placement which can be carried out anywhere in the world. The placement year offers a chance to gain experience and make contacts for the future. Alternatively you can complete an optional short 5 week placement and complete your course in three years.

Core units

• Independent Research Project (A&A): The Independent Research Project provides you with an opportunity to gain experience of research in a topic of your choice relevant to your degree and to demonstrate your ability to report that research. Such experience is considered essential for those students interested in pursuing academic and/or professional research at a higher level of responsibility and achievement.

Option units (choose four):

• Archaeological Management and Professional Practice: During this unit you will explore the principles and practice of sustainable development, cultural heritage conservation, and managing the historic environment in the UK, extending critical awareness of the discipline and its wider societal context. This will prepare you for professional employment in the archaeological, heritage, conservation industries. 

• Between Heaven and Earth: the archaeology of landscapes and skyscapes: Receive an introduction to the sister fields of landscape archaeology and skyscape archaeology (formerly known as archaeoastronomy). Learn about a broad range of theoretical approaches and methodological tools to address research questions around issues such as ontology, dwelling, place, wayfinding and orientation.

• Digital Approaches to Archaeology & Anthropology: Gain an understanding of digital approaches and how they can help archaeologists and anthropologists answer specific research questions. You’ll be introduced to fundamental themes in data analysis including what it is, its advantages and limitations, and how it can help make sense of archaeological and anthropological data.

• Fields of Conflict: Violence and warfare in the human past: Human beings’ propensity to engage in violent hostilities and at times in organized group conflict has long been a subject of debate, and continues to generate questions that have yet to be resolved. This unit considers the forms of evidence that might lead us to recognise the existence of  violence and conflict in the human past.

• Making Land: The Origins of Agriculture: Discover the wide variety of pathways that led to plant and animal domestication across the globe. You’ll be exposed to case-studies drawn from a large range of geographical and temporal case-studies.

• Sarup to Stonehenge: Early farming communities in northwestern Europe: Sarup to Stonehenge provides you with a rich and detailed critical understanding of the archaeology of early farming communities in what are conventionally referred to as the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, broadly 4000–2000 BC, in Britain, Ireland, and the adjacent Continental coastlands from western France to southern Scandinavia. 

• People and Nature in Amazonia: This unit provides an introduction to the archaeology and ecology of the Neotropics, centred on the Amazon basin. It will span multiple periods from the initial peopling of the continent to beyond European colonisation.

• People, Production and Place: During this unit, you will gain an understanding of productive crafts and their role in understanding past societies, with a focus on the importance of craft and industry in our understanding of human societies past and present.

• Open Curriculum Elective: 

• Animals & Society: This unit aims to provide you with a detailed critical understanding of humans’ interactions with animals in Britain from the Palaeolithic through to the early Post-medieval period. These interactions include the exploitation of animals for meat and other products and how animals were incorporated into burial practices and other rituals.

• Roman Britain: You will be provided with the opportunity to explore in detail the practical and theoretical problems associated with the study of the material culture and archaeology of a distinct geographical area. The unit seeks to provide you with a solid understanding of the importance of archaeological data in the understanding and interpretation of historical chronologies.

• Maritime Archaeology: This unit is focused on the development of maritime archaeological traditions and management regimes in the UK. You will be introduced to the archaeology of boats and ships from the past enabling you to understand the broad chronology of their development. The unit will be delivered through a combination of keynote lectures and seminars supported by a field-trip to a site relevant to the key elements (e.g. the Mary Rose, Chatham Historic Dockyard or the Cutty Sark).

Please note that option units require minimum numbers in order to run and may only be available on a semester by semester basis. They may also change from year to year.

We include fieldwork on a professional archaeological excavation as part of your course. You will attend an archaeological field school at the end of your first year and have the option to attend in subsequent years, too. Participation in BU's renowned Durotriges Big Dig allows you to gain a wide range of practical skills. We have all the equipment you'd expect to find professionals using on a dig in our field equipment stores, such as a wide range of site-surveying applications, including GPS and Total Stations for topographic surveying, remote sensing instruments such as Magentometers, Ground Penetrating Radar and Resistivity Meters and 3D laser scanners.

Programme specifications provide definitive records of the University's taught degrees in line with Quality Assurance Agency requirements. Every taught course leading to a BU Award has a programme specification which describes its aims, structure, content and learning outcomes, plus the teaching, learning and assessment methods used.

Whilst every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the programme specification, the information is liable to change to take advantage of exciting new approaches to teaching and learning as well as developments in industry.

If you have been unable to locate the programme specification for the course you are interested in, it will be available as soon as the latest version is ready. Alternatively please contact us for assistance.

A placement should be a highly rewarding experience for you and the employing company and we do our best to ensure that everyone involved feels that they have got the most that they can from the experience.

Placements provide a great opportunity to make your first career steps and enhance your employability while you’re completing your studies. You’ll get the opportunity to:

• Put the theory learnt throughout the course into professional practice
• Enhance your study and help you decide on subject options (where appropriate)
• Learn a wide range of skills such as time management, problem solving and team work (all of these are important to succeed in any career)
• Make contacts, as it is not uncommon for our students to be offered permanent positions to return to after graduating
• Gain a real insight into how the industry operates in roles that would be almost impossible to achieve for an outsider.

Many of our students, during their placement, are given responsibilities normally associated with graduate trainees.

You can complete an optional 5 week placement as part of your 3 year full-time course, after completion of your second year of study, or a 30 weeks placement during your third year of study if you are opting for the placement year.

The faculty running your course will offer the support of a Placement Coordinator. 

They’ll help you plan your placement so make sure you get the right experience for you. That includes offering help and support if you need to move to another part of the UK – and even another country – to get the most out of your time.

We’ve also built close industry links over the years – so our network of employers that are keen to work with placement students is always growing. Or if you’d prefer to arrange your placement independently, we can offer advice on how to do that too.

Students have attended placements with some of the leading UK archaeological organisations, and foreign placements, often via the Grampus programme, in Cyprus, Finland and Iceland.

Example placement employers include:

• Wessex Archaeology
• Cotswold Archaeology
• Local and regional museums.

AccessBU: AccessBU provides you with the opportunity to tell us about your circumstances that are not always evident in your UCAS application. This widening access initiative also considers relevant criteria such as being in care or if you live in an area with a low participation rate in Higher Education - if you are eligible, your offer could be up to 16 UCAS tariff points below the published tariff.

Apprenticeships: We recognise the transferable knowledge and skills gained through apprenticeships and welcome applications from students with a Level 3 Advanced Apprenticeship recognised by the Institute for Apprenticeships. Each application will be considered on a case-by-case basis.

Deferred entry: We are happy to consider eligible applicants for deferred entry. If you have already submitted your application, please submit your deferral request through our website. 

Direct entry: We welcome applications from students who have previously studied at degree level at other institutions and wish to transfer onto a BU course. Our Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) procedure enables credit awarded from one institution to contribute to a BU award, subject to an application process. Please visit our RPL webpage for more information.

Mature applicants: We recognise that mature applicants may have a wealth of experience rather than formal qualifications, so we’ll consider your application on these merits if included in your application. You’ll need to apply to BU in the usual way through UCAS and you may be invited to an interview to discuss your suitability for the course based on the experience you tell us about in your application.

You'll have a lively interest in the human past with backgrounds that could include archaeology, history and sciences. The study and practice of archaeology involves a variety of skills, including those used in the field, in the laboratory, and based on wide reading so you should be happy learning to work in all these areas. We look for innovative thinkers who are interested in understanding the past through practical investigation.

Applicants will have strong problem-solving and communication skills, both written and oral, as archaeology involves working well as an individual and also as part of a team. We seek students with enquiring minds who are comfortable using science, technology and creative thought to apply in their studies and would encourage applicants who are interested in exploring new ideas and concepts and applying knowledge across disciplines.

We select candidates for this course by looking at your application; there are usually no interviews or selection activities needed. For that reason, make sure your application really stands out from the crowd, and leave us in no doubt as to why you should be joining BU. You can find some handy hints about filling in your UCAS form on our how to apply web pages.

We look at individual applications and make a tailored offer based on your potential to succeed on the course considering a range of factors, including your academic achievements, work and other experience, reference and personal statement, and in some cases, your performance at an interview or a portfolio review. Typically, we make an offer at the bottom of the tariff range.

If you are unable to meet the entry requirements, we may be able to make you an offer through AccessBU if you meet certain criteria e.g. you have been in care or live in an area where fewer people typically progress to Higher Education. If you don't meet our published tariff, we will accept you at least 8 points below if your personal circumstances match our AccessBU criteria. 

Our offer-making will typically be based on your most recent qualifications, including any required subjects where applicable. We'll consider all qualifications when assessing your application, although these may not be part of our offer.

If you do not meet the criteria of your original offer, we may still offer you a place. We will review your whole application and consider all academic qualifications (including those not in the offer) to see if you have the academic potential to succeed on the course. If we feel the answer is yes, we will confirm your place.

These courses have compulsory elements involving working with dangerous substances in laboratory conditions and/or undertaking field trips in less accessible environments.  Students must complete a health and safety risk assessment taking part in these activities, for their safety and that of others.  As part of that assessment students provide information about any conditions or disabilities that might affect their ability to undertake these activities fully or safely. 

If you have such a condition or disability, please let us know as soon as possible. You can contact our Additional Learning Support (ALS) service about this before or after making an application.  We will then work with you to identify any support or adjustments you would need.  Our ALS team works with the Faculty to seek to put in place reasonable adjustments and health and safety plans. 

Exceptionally, it may not be possible to arrange for a student to access these courses without either over-riding their core standards or competencies or creating unacceptable risks to health and safety.  If that is the case we will help you explore alternative course choices.

Our graduates go on to a large variety of roles, using their transferrable skills in positions and areas listed below:

• Archaeologist
• Commercial Heritage, museums, conservation trusts and tourism
• Data management and analysis
• Education, higher education, research and academia
• Historical preservation
• Commercial archaeology excavation and consultancy
• Local government services, charities, social research and policy, health and social work, development,
• Law, law enforcement, forensic science, scene of crime and police forces
• Overseas agencies and international organisations

Whilst many of our graduates are working for organisations such as English Heritage, Border Archaeology, National Trust or other local and national museums, collections and archaeology services, we also prepare our graduates for careers in a variety of other sectors, such as media, TV production, journalism, marketing, financial services, science and laboratory work, as well as chartered surveying and the construction industry.

Once you have completed an undergraduate Honours degree, you can further develop your education by studying for a postgraduate degree. Please visit our Postgraduate section for further details about our range of Master's degrees.

There are lots of exciting careers you can embark on once you've graduated from BU. Below is a list of what some of our graduates are up to now.

Rachel Holmes

Rachael graduated from BU in 2018. She completed a BSc (Hons) Anthropology. Rachael is now a postgraduate researcher on a CENTA DTP scholarship at the University of Leicester, researching past environments by investigating biological changes in the past (such as the introduction of invasive plant species and the resilience of mangrove communities) with the aim to inform future policy decisions.  

Russel Harris

Russel graduated from BU with an undergraduate degree BSc (Hons) Archaeology in 2002 and stayed at BU to complete a MSc degree in Forensic Archaeology which he graduated from in 2004. Russel then went on to be employed by Lincolnshire Police as a Crime Analyst before specialising as an Financial Investigator.

Sasha Houghton

Is a recent BA (Hons) Archaeology & Anthropology graduate who graduated in 2020. She conducted her dissertation project focussing on Zooarchaeology. Sasha now works for Oxford Archaeology which is one of the biggest Commercial archaeology companies in the UK.

Bernice Jones

Bernice is a former undergraduate obtaining a BSc (Hons) Archaeological and Forensic Sciences degree in 2019 and a recent MSc Bioarchaeology degree in 2020. Her MSc dissertation focused on Zooarchaeology. Bernice now works for Oxford Archaeology which is one of the biggest Commercial archaeology companies in the UK.

Sam Walker

Sam is a former BU Archaeology undergraduate and obtained his MSc Osteoarchaeology degree in 2014. Sam was a student member of one of our Zooarchaeology research projects in Russia. Sam also worked for Bournemouth Archaeology on commercial projects before starting his PhD in Norway (some of which he has spent as a visiting PGR here at BU). He specialises in bird bone remains. 

Lawrence Shaw

Lawrence graduated from BU in 2008 with a BSc (Hons) Archaeology degree. He is currently the lead environment advisor for Forestry England and regularly collaborates with departmental staff on research projects. Lawrence works with our Deputy Head of Department Derek Pitman to present podcasts and videos about archaeology. 

David Cranham

Dave graduated from BU in 2009 with a BA (Hons) Archaeology and Prehistory degree. Dave initially worked for Thames Valley Archaeological Services (TVAS) but went on to use the skills he obtained from his degree to manage and run a successful construction company ‘Pear Tree Solutions Limited’ which creates bespoke renovations. Dave runs the company which involves ultilising a wide range of skills including budgeting, communication and correspondence with clients, staffing, as well as the hands-on construction side of the business.

Lizzie Bryant

Lizzie graduated from BU in 2007 with a BSc (Hons) Heritage Conservation degree after completing an Foundation degree in Applied Architectural Stonework at Weymouth College. Previously, Lizzie had worked in the film industry in production and as script editor and producer. After her undergraduate degree at BU she worked in building conservation and heritage education, then pursued a MA in Creative Writing for Children at Winchester University. Lizzie’s career is now embedded in oral storytelling and writing and much of her work is linked with archaeology, cultural astronomy, history, museums and heritage landscapes (e.g. Avebury, Stonehenge, Cranborne Chase ANOB).

Sadie Watson

Sadie graduated from BU in 1995 and went on to work in field archaeology in the City of London for MOLA, directing large multi-phase excavations. During this time Sadie did a PhD in Applied Archaeology at the University of Lampeter and is currently a UKRI Future Leaders Fellow based at MOLA. Her four-year Fellowship is titled ‘Measuring, Maximising and transforming public benefit from UK Government infrastructure investment in archaeology’. The focus of her project is to ensure that public spending on archaeology leads to relevant research and community participation. 

Gabrielle Delbarre

Gabrielle graduated from BU in 2014 with an MSc in Osteoarchaeology. While completing her MSc she worked part-time at the National History Museum in London as a Curation Assistant and Documentation Officer within the Anthropology Collections in the Earth Sciences Department. She went on to work as a Curator and Collection Manager at Hengistbury Head Visitor Centre and Kingfisher Barn Visitor Centre in Bournemouth. Gabrielle has returned to work at BU in the Archaeology & Anthropology Department as a Demonstrator where she manages the Anthropology and Zooarchaeology laboratories, one of the largest collections of human remains and faunal skeletal material in the South of England.

The PAST programme is delivered as a mix of on-site fieldwork and seminar sessions where industry professionals and academic experts will discuss their area of expertise.

You will benefit from one-to-one training in professional archaeology fieldwork techniques, including:

• Excavation techniques
• Survey and Computer Aided Design (CAD) in archaeology
• Recording methodology
• Digital photography
• Health and Safety
• Project management
• Planning services & policies.

Your completed training will be recorded on an Archaeology Skills Passport, which is endorsed by the Chartered Institute of Archaeologists and recognised by professional employers. You will additionally receive an Archaeology Fieldwork Manual and fieldworker data cards. The scheme also covers:

• Use of personal excavation equipment
• CV and job application workshops
• Careers advice.

Previous students thought the scheme was great:

“Training for commercial archaeology. Thought provoking, fun, and an excellent learning environment. Ideal for someone just graduating and looking into commercial archaeology.”

“The classroom sessions were great and there was a real sense of a two-way dialogue between the guest lecturers and the students. Things were explained very well and made it easily understandable.”

“The staff are very knowledgeable, and happy to share their expertise. Really comprehensive and professional. Clearly lectured and demonstrated.”

What’s included in your tuition fee?

Your tuition fee covers expenses associated with your course including tuition materials, access to facilities, mandatory field trips and the following:

• Materials for laboratory and field-based teaching activity
• Support for finding placements (UK or abroad) and fieldwork, and non-financial support whilst on placement
• A range of student services – advisors, help desks, counsellors, placement support and careers service
• The Library – access to a wide range of electronic resources (databases, e-journals and e-books), print and multimedia collections, subject librarians and study spaces
• Access to Brightspace, our virtual learning environment, which offers a responsive and personalised learning experience with powerful learning analytics capabilities, integrated social media and advanced video features.
• IT labs (some open 24/7), wireless network, AV equipment to borrow
• Free software download to your personal device of Microsoft Office 365 ProPlus while you are studying, as well as access to applications provided on AppsAnywhere, subject to licensing and compatibility restrictions
• Peer Assisted Learning (PAL) scheme
• Disability and additional learning support
• The BU Language Centre to help you develop/improve foreign or English language skills
• 24 hours a day, 365 days a year security team
• Loan of lab coats and safety glasses.

Additional costs

We are committed to offering you value for money and ensuring there are no hidden costs while you are studying with us, therefore we have listed below any additional costs you may incur that are not covered by your tuition fee:

• Laptops, tablets and mobile devices
• Accommodation and living costs. Our accommodation price guide can be found on our website 
• Travel costs, outdoor wear and footwear for optional field trips (where applicable)
• Textbooks, general stationery and other supplies. Our award-winning library is stocked with a large range of textbooks and online resources, free of charge. The Students’ Union shops stock a wide range of stationery supplies on both campuses
• Students taking the Level 5 unit 'Scientific Diving' will need to arrange their own medical before they are able to dive. The cost for this is typically £90
• Travel costs to and from the university campus. An annual bus pass is included in your rent if you are living in halls of residence/Unilet accommodation
• Travel costs to and from your placement (both in the UK and overseas). Information about funding your placement year can be found on our website
• You will need to meet the cost of any Enhanced Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) check if required by your placement setting, including any Post Office verification changes. 
• Clothing or equipment costs required for your placement
• SportBU membership.

If you need to repeat one or more units during your studies (with or without attendance) the pricing will be pro-rata of the full-time fee.

Nicholas is a Senior Lecturer in Archaeological Science, specialising in archaeological prospection (geophysical survey and remote sensing). His research centres on the application of these methods in archaeological and cultural heritage management and their integration with GIS-based spatial analysis and deposit modelling for the reconstruction and mapping of archaeological resources and past environments. He also have extensive professional experience and has directed numerous fieldwork projects varying from surveys of scheduled monuments and historic properties to large-scale investigations of multi-period archaeological landscapes.

Dr Emma Jenkins is the leader of the INEA project, which is a long term investigation of the Neolithic in southwest Asia.  This important period in human history is one of the most poorly understood. This is partly due to the problems associated with site recognition and partly because of the lack of preservation of many forms of evidence, particularly biological. As a result, many Neolithic sites are comprised of a series of structures, the function of which is difficult, if not impossible, to interpret. Emma and her team have travelled to Jordon on a number of occasions, building up a gallery of images and videos.

Dr Martin Smith is a Biological Anthropologist with a particular interest in prehistoric populations and areas of taphonomy and trauma with relevance to both forensic and archaeological remains. Some of Martin’s most enjoyable work has involved experimentation, such as feeding meat on the bone to various carnivorous animals; he most memorably came within inches of a very irritable lynx as well as a rather inquisitive tiger!