BSc (Hons) Forensic Computing & Security

Interested in using ethical hacking to identify security problems, and developing solutions that fix them?

UCAS Code:
G550
Institution:
B50
Delivery:
Full-time with sandwich placement

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Why study BSc (Hons) Forensic Computing & Security at BU?

Understand the ways that hackers, as well as general users think in order to predict their behaviour
Use your applied technical skills to expose weakness in systems to ultimately build and maintain secure digital environments
Engage in a series of practical, industry-focused tasks and co-participate in a range of research projects, not only with BU staff but experts from other institutions in the UK and Europe
Gain valuable work experience on your placement if you choose to take one
You’ll be qualified to work in the security and/or forensic industry in roles such as police forensics investigator, forensics consultant, security advisor, information security analyst or cyber security analyst. You'll be career ready with 89% of our computing graduates in employment or further study after 15 months.
All of our computing courses share a common first year, giving you the time to really explore each subject before deciding on a specialism. View our list of Computing courses.

Find out more about the content of this course.

For September 2022 entry: We are currently developing a foundation year option for UK students who do not meet the entry requirements for the degree course. This additional year of study will give you a grounding in the skills required for this course, building your confidence, knowledge and skills for further study. After successful completion of the foundation year, you will progress to the full degree. This page will be updated with more information in July 2022. Please register your interest and we will email you when the foundation year option is open for applications.

Course accreditation

Accreditation by the Chartered Institute for IT (BCS) provides an indicator of quality and can help you work towards Chartered IT Professional status. You’ll have the chance to complete Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification courses during your degree.

For September 2022 entry: In order to take advantage of new approaches to learning and teaching, as well as developments in industry to benefit our students we regularly review all of our courses. This course is currently going through this process and we will update this page in May 2022 to give you full information about what we will be offering once the review process has concluded.

See what it's like to study on this course

Image description — Students in Computing

Next start date:

September 2022, September 2023

Location:

Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus

Duration:

4 years full-time with a minimum 30-week placement or 3 years full-time. You will be enrolled onto the 4-year degree, but can opt out of the placement year

Accreditations:

The Chartered Institute for IT (BCS)

Required subjects:

All subjects considered

Entry requirements:

For September 2022 and September 2023 entry: 104 - 120 UCAS tariff points including a minimum of 2 A levels or equivalent. BTEC Extended Diploma: DMM. For more information check out our full entry requirements.

International entry requirements:

For September 2022 and September 2023 entry: If English is not your first language you'll need IELTS (Academic) 6.0 with a minimum 5.5 in each of the components or equivalent. For more information check out our international entry requirements.

Course details

On this course you will be taught by a range of staff with relevant expertise and knowledge appropriate to the content of the unit. This will include senior academic staff, qualified professional practitioners, demonstrators, technicians and research students. You will also benefit from regular guest lectures from industry.

Contact hours and assessment

Details of the assessment methods and contact hours for each unit of the course can be found in the programme specification.

Download the programme specification (pdf, 187kb)

Year 1

Principles of Programming: Covers the fundamental skills required to implement software solutions. Lab sessions will focus on the application of concepts to real-world problems, and you will test and debug a given program using a suitable strategy.
Computer Fundamentals: Enables you to understand the concepts and terminology of computer systems and computer security. You will do this through group based lab exercises where you will collaborate with other students focusing on problem based learning. This unit sets the foundations for you to further develop your knowledge of computing and cyber security.
Data and Databases: Develop your knowledge and practical expertise in the application of database design techniques, as well as your understanding of data processing.
Networks and Cyber Security: Learn the fundamentals of networks and how to secure them using security controls such as firewalls and intrusion detection & prevention systems. Understand how evolving technology, such as the cloud and IoT, impacts many organisations and how it facilitates their network security.
Application of Programming Principles: Having completed the Principles of Programming unit, you will use your knowledge to gain an insight into more complex system development. Lab sessions will allow you to complete team based exercises.
Business Systems Analysis and Design: Learn and understand the role that computer systems play within organisations, and the value they provide to stakeholders. You will have the opportunity to design, construct, and evaluate interactive systems to meet an organisation’s needs.

Year 2

Digital Forensics Fundamentals: Introduces you to the science of digital forensics and provides technical skills to manage a digital crime scene. Practical sessions will focus on developing skills to recover digital evidence from hard drives.
Ethical Hacking & Countermeasures: Will provide you with opportunities to develop skills in ethical hacking, and associated security techniques and practices. Practical sessions help you gain insight (via practice) of the relationships between security and social and technical techniques used to compromise that security.
Enterprise Security and Privacy: This unit provides a detailed picture of the security and privacy issues surrounding an enterprise, i.e. an entity that incorporates business, information and technology and where its value is greater than the sum of its parts. We will cover a number of services found in a modern organisation and an emphasis will be given to services outsourced in a cloud environment. This emphasis is motivated by the fact that cloud security has been ranked as the greatest challenge of business engagement with cloud service provision.
Project Management & Team Working: You'll gain experience of working in a team on an IT systems development project, which will prepare you for work placement in Year 3.
Security Information and Event Management (SIEM): You will be given state-of-the-art skills and understanding on the need for real-time monitoring and analysis of network hardware and software data feeds in order to provide security intelligence, rapid incident response, and data driven compliance reports.
Tools & Technologies of Data Science: Understand the challenges of Big Data analysis, including ethical, legal and professional implications. Gain knowledge of the most significant computing tools and technologies for dealing with Big Data: Hadoop and noSQL databases, MapReduce programming and other algorithm parallelization approaches.

Placement year

Final year

Core units

Advanced Digital Forensics: This unit builds on the knowledge of Digital Forensics Fundamentals and will introduce you contemporaneous issues and challenges of digital forensics. It will provide the competence to identify the history of events that lead to incidents and reconstruct attacks that organisations often face.
Security by Design: Today security is still an afterthought instead of a vital element in system design, often being considered after the realisation of a threat. This unit provides you with the opportunity to ‘build security into’ both the design and specification of secure systems, and the broader socio-technical context within which they are situated.
Individual Project: You will pursue a topic of your choice, demonstrate your ability to study independently and work toward the realization of an artefact that focuses on cyber security and/or digital forensics. The project is a significant piece of work, and will provide invaluable transferable skills.

Option units

Business Continuity Management: You will be introduced to the wider topic of resilience, which is the ability of an organisation to keep functioning during and after an attack, incident or natural disaster.
Cyber Situational Awareness: Cyber security managers should be capable of constructing and understanding the threat landscape in their organisations. Cyber situational awareness is an interdisciplinary, evolving complex topic requiring co-ordinated synergy between technical capabilities and human competencies. The aim of this unit is to provide the learner with the necessary skills and knowledge to manage cyber situational awareness as a main component in the development of a Security Operations Centre.
Cybercrime: Examine the subject from the criminal angle and investigate the history and causes of cybercrime through the experiences of victims and law enforcement. You will also consider the technologies that stand behind certain cybercrimes, namely malware (viruses, worms, Trojan Horses, etc.), email spamming and denial of service (DoS) attacks, and consider how to handle a digital crime scene.
Information Assurance: This unit will introduce you to the management of risk and trust in Information Strategies, Operations and Systems. You will critically evaluate information assurance and security plans, select and execute relevant assurance techniques, as they apply in distributed and non-distributed environments.

Please note that option units require minimum numbers in order to run and may only be available on a semester by semester basis. They may also change from year to year.

Programme specification

Programme specifications provide definitive records of the University's taught degrees in line with Quality Assurance Agency requirements. Every taught course leading to a BU Award has a programme specification which describes its aims, structure, content and learning outcomes, plus the teaching, learning and assessment methods used.

Whilst every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the programme specification, the information is liable to change to take advantage of exciting new approaches to teaching and learning as well as developments in industry.

If you have been unable to locate the programme specification for the course you are interested in, it will be available as soon as the latest version is ready. Alternatively please contact us for assistance.

Placements

At BU, we recognise that placements are extremely valuable and can give you a head start when it comes to your future career. That’s why we offer every new student the opportunity to undertake a work placement as part of their course.

Your optional placement will begin after your second year of study and must last a minimum of 30 weeks. We will provide a great deal of support to help you find the most appropriate placement for the subject you’re studying and the career you’re interested in, which means you could be based anywhere in the UK, or even overseas.

The placement provides an excellent opportunity for you to gain first-hand industry experience. Find out more about how we support you during your placement.

Find out about BU students’ experiences on placements All you need to know about placements

How placements benefit you

The experience that you will gain during your placement is invaluable in helping to make informed decisions about your future career path, as well as enhancing employment prospects upon graduation.

What’s more, you can also choose to take your placement abroad, giving you the opportunity to develop yourself personally, academically, and professionally and gain skills to help you stand out in the job market. Many of our students find that they are offered permanent jobs after graduation by their placement companies.

Many new graduate positions are taken by people who have already had work experience as part of a course. Employers increasingly expect would-be recruits to have some kind of work experience, without which they are unlikely to be considered, regardless of their qualifications.

How long will your placement be?

What support will be available

The faculty running your course will offer the support of a Placement Co-ordinator.

They’ll help you plan your placement to make sure you get the right experience for you. That includes offering help and support if you need to move to another part of the UK – and even another country – to get the most out of your time.

We’ve also built close industry links over the years – so our network of employers that are keen to work with placement students is always growing. Or if you’d prefer to arrange your placement independently, we can offer advice on how to do that too.

Our placement students have previously worked with

Entry requirements

This course requires 104–120 UCAS tariff points including a minimum of 2 A-levels or equivalent. We are happy to consider a combination of qualifications and grades to meet the overall tariff, for example A-levels A*CC, ABC, BBB or BCC, BTECs DDM or DMM. You can use the UCAS calculator to see how your qualifications equate to UCAS tariff points.

Calculate your UCAS tariff points

2022 and 2023 entry
Numeracy and literacy requirements (e.g. GCSEs)	GCSE English Language or English Literature and Mathematics grade 4 (or grade C in the old grading system). We also accept iGCSEs, Key Skills and Functional Skills and other qualifications at Level 2 of the National Qualifications Framework. See all of the equivalencies.
A-level and AS levels	104–120 UCAS tariff points from a minimum of two A-levels.
Advanced Welsh Baccalaureate – Skills Challenge Certificate	We accept this qualification, but it must be accompanied by an A-level sized qualification to meet the overall UCAS tariff.
Access to HE Diploma	102–118 UCAS tariff points with any combination of Distinction, Merit, Pass grades.
BTEC National	Extended Diploma: Distinction, Merit, Merit (112 UCAS tariff points) Diploma: Distinction, Distinction (104 UCAS tariff points) Foundation Diploma/90-credit Diploma:* We accept this qualification, but it must be accompanied by an A-level sized qualification to meet the overall UCAS tariff Extended Certificate/Subsidiary Diploma: We accept this qualification as part of the overall tariff.
Cambridge International Pre-U Diploma	104–120 UCAS tariff points from a minimum of two principal subjects.
Cambridge Technical	Extended Diploma: Distinction, Merit, Merit (112 UCAS tariff points) Diploma: Distinction, Distinction (104 UCAS tariff points) Subsidiary Diploma:* We accept this qualification, but it must be accompanied by an A-level sized qualification to meet the overall UCAS tariff Introductory Diploma: We accept this qualification, but it must be accompanied by an A-level sized qualification to meet the overall UCAS tariff.
Extended Project Qualification	We accept this qualification, but it must be accompanied by two A-level sized qualifications to meet the overall UCAS tariff.
International Baccalaureate Certificates	104–120 UCAS tariff points from a minimum of two Higher Level certificates.
International Baccalaureate (Diploma)	An overall score of 28–31 points.
Scottish Highers	104–120 UCAS tariff points from a minimum of four Scottish Highers.
Scottish Advanced Highers	104–120 UCAS tariff points from a minimum of two Scottish Advanced Highers.
T Levels	Merit (120 UCAS tariff points).

International entry requirements

You can find details of the international qualifications we accept, and what level of study they apply to, on our entry requirements for non-UK students' page.	Please see below some examples of the qualifications for entry onto Year 1 for September 2022 and September 2023 entry: Chinese Senior High School Graduation Certificate (Huikao) average 80%, or Gaokao 61-71%. Grade depends on the course Hong Kong HKDSE Diploma (4,4,3 to 4,4,4 from three subjects). Grade depends on the course All India Senior School Certificate Examination (Standard XII) 60-70% Italian Esame di Stato with 60-70%. Grade depends on the course Titulo de Bachillerato with 6 or 7. Grade depends on the course We offer a number of preparatory programmes through Bournemouth University International College. These courses offer you progression from High School in your home country to a Bachelor’s degree at BU. Options include: Foundation Certificate in Computing English language requirements If English is not your first language, you will need to provide evidence that you can understand English to a satisfactory level. English language requirements for this course are normally: For September 2022 and September 2023 entry: IELTS (Academic) 6.0 with minimum 5.5 in each component, or equivalent. View further information about our English language requirements. If you do not meet the English language requirement for your degree then why not join our Pre-Sessional English course? Successful completion of our Pre-Sessional English course will meet your English language requirement.

You can find details of the international qualifications we accept, and what level of study they apply to, on our entry requirements for non-UK students' page.

Please see below some examples of the qualifications for entry onto Year 1 for September 2022 and September 2023 entry:

Chinese Senior High School Graduation Certificate (Huikao) average 80%, or Gaokao 61-71%. Grade depends on the course
Hong Kong HKDSE Diploma (4,4,3 to 4,4,4 from three subjects). Grade depends on the course
All India Senior School Certificate Examination (Standard XII) 60-70%
Italian Esame di Stato with 60-70%. Grade depends on the course
Titulo de Bachillerato with 6 or 7. Grade depends on the course

We offer a number of preparatory programmes through Bournemouth University International College. These courses offer you progression from High School in your home country to a Bachelor’s degree at BU.

Options include:

Foundation Certificate in Computing

English language requirements

If English is not your first language, you will need to provide evidence that you can understand English to a satisfactory level. English language requirements for this course are normally:

For September 2022 and September 2023 entry: IELTS (Academic) 6.0 with minimum 5.5 in each component, or equivalent.

View further information about our English language requirements.

If you do not meet the English language requirement for your degree then why not join our Pre-Sessional English course? Successful completion of our Pre-Sessional English course will meet your English language requirement.

Other useful information

AccessBU: AccessBU provides you with the opportunity to tell us about your circumstances that are not always evident in your UCAS application. This widening access initiative also considers relevant criteria such as being in care or if you live in an area with a low participation rate in Higher Education - if you are eligible, your offer could be up to 16 UCAS tariff points below the published tariff.

Apprenticeships: We recognise the transferable knowledge and skills gained through apprenticeships and welcome applications from students with a Level 3 Advanced Apprenticeship recognised by the Institute for Apprenticeships. Each application will be considered on a case-by-case basis.

Deferred entry: We are happy to consider eligible applicants for deferred entry. If you have already submitted your application, please submit your deferral request through our website.

Direct entry: We welcome applications from students who have previously studied at degree level at other institutions and wish to transfer onto a BU course. Our Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) procedure enables credit awarded from one institution to contribute to a BU award, subject to an application process. Please visit our RPL webpage for more information.

Mature applicants: We recognise that mature applicants may have a wealth of experience rather than formal qualifications, so we’ll consider your application on these merits if included in your application. You’ll need to apply to BU in the usual way through UCAS and you may be invited to an interview to discuss your suitability for the course based on the experience you tell us about in your application

Your application

For this course will suit applicants who are:

Analytical
Technical
Practical
Creative.

How to apply

What we’re looking for

This is a predominantly technical framework, especially in the first year, which is common to all the degree titles in the framework, and in the second year core units. Therefore you will need to have a deep and abiding interest in computing and IT, and in the use of computer technologies to create effective and efficient solutions that meet the needs of the end users.

You will need to be hard-working and committed to your studies, be a good team player, and able to communicate effectively both verbally and in writing.

Selection methods

How we assess your application

We look at individual applications and make a tailored offer based on your potential to succeed on the course considering a range of factors, including your academic achievements, work and other experience, reference and personal statement, and in some cases, your performance at an interview or a portfolio review. Typically, we make an offer at the bottom of the tariff range.

AccessBU gives you the chance to tell us more about you and your life experiences if you haven’t had the same educational opportunities as other applicants. If you are eligible for AccessBU, your offer could be up to 16 UCAS Tariff Points below the published tariff.

Our offer making process

Our offer-making will typically be based on your most recent qualifications, including any required subjects where applicable. We'll consider all qualifications when assessing your application, although these may not be part of our offer.

If you do not meet the criteria of your original offer, we may still offer you a place. We will review your whole application and consider all academic qualifications (including those not in the offer) to see if you have the academic potential to succeed on the course. If we feel the answer is yes, we will confirm your place.

Careers

This degree will provide you with a broad range of technical computing knowledge, as well as allowing you to specialise in the forensic aspect of computing, covering investigation and IT security. This will make you a diverse professional who is equipped to take on a variety of roles once you graduate.

There are a number of career paths open to you, especially in specialist to forensic computing and security roles.

Typical job roles

Industries worked in

Accreditations

This course is accredited by The Chartered Institute for IT (BCS) and you will also have the chance to complete Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification courses during your degree, making use of the facilities and resources at the BU Cisco Certified Local Networking Academy.

To be awarded Chartered IT Professional status from BCS you will need to complete a year of further learning beyond graduation and meet other criteria, details of which can be found on the BCS website.

Further study

Costs and fees

All fees are quoted in pounds sterling and are per year. Your tuition fees will be the same for each year of your course. You can find full information about funding your studies and paying your fees in our undergraduate fees and funding section. That’s also where you’ll find information about the scholarships and bursaries on offer.

Fees quoted are for tuition only unless stated otherwise, and we’re committed to ensuring there are no hidden extra costs while you’re at university – that’s why we’re clear about what you can expect us to cover, and what your cost of living will be. You’ll also find you could benefit from a range of discounts as a student.

Find out more about budgeting and living expenses

No hidden extras

What’s included in your tuition fee?

Your tuition fee covers expenses associated with your course, including tuition materials, access to facilities, mandatory field trips and the following:

Materials for laboratory and field-based teaching activity
Support for finding placements (UK or abroad) and fieldwork, and non-financial support whilst on placement if this is part of your course of study
A range of student services – advisors, help desks, counsellors, placement support and careers service
The Library – access to a wide range of electronic resources (databases, e-journals and e-books), print and multimedia collections, subject librarians and study spaces
Access to Brightspace, our virtual learning environment, which offers a responsive and personalised learning experience with powerful learning analytics capabilities, integrated social media and advanced video features
IT labs (some open 24/7), wireless network, AV equipment to borrow
Peer Assisted Learning (PAL) scheme
Disability and additional learning support, according to individual circumstances
The BU Language Centre to help you develop/improve foreign or English language skills
24 hours a day, 365 days a year security team
Loan of lab coats and safety glasses.

Costs of living and other expenses you need to consider

Additional costs

We are committed to offering you value for money and ensuring there are no hidden costs while you are studying with us, therefore we have listed below any additional costs you may incur that are not covered by your tuition fee:

Laptops, tablets and mobile devices and any software used on personal devices. Access to a personal computer is strongly recommended for your study. If you are experiencing financial difficulty, visit our website for information regarding hardship funds.
Textbooks, general stationery and other supplies. Our award-winning library is stocked with a large range of textbooks and online resources, free of charge. The Students’ Union shops stock a wide range of stationery supplies on both campuses
Accommodation and living costs. Please visit our website for more information.
Travel costs for optional field trips, outdoor wear and footwear for mandatory and optional field trips (if applicable).
Travel costs to and from the University campus. An annual bus pass can be purchased alongside your rent if you are living in halls of residence/Unilet accommodation or may be purchased separately
Travel costs to and from your placement (both in the UK and overseas) if this is part of your course of study. Information about funding your placement year can be found on our website.
Clothing or equipment costs required for your placement if this is part of your course of study
SportBU membership.

While all aspects of the programme, including required field trips, are included in the fee, additional, optional or extra curricula activities may be available for which a student contribution is required.

Repeat units

The Royal Television Society Bursary Scheme

The RTS wants the television industry to reflect the exciting, diverse, and talented voices of the Britain of today, and that starts by changing the industry from the inside out. The Royal Television Society Bursary Scheme is officially open for submissions. Applications will be accepted until the 15th of July 2022.

Bursaries are awarded to talented students from lower-income backgrounds studying an undergraduate degree in the subject of Journalism, VFX, Television Production, Humanities and Social Sciences, and STEM-related courses. The RTS runs three pioneering schemes – the TV Production and Journalism Bursary, the Digital Innovation Bursary, and the Steve Hewlett Scholarship. What is important is an evident interest in pursuing a career in television, film, or related media industries.

The Bursary provides free RTS membership; industry mentoring; access to the latest events and lectures; and numerous networking opportunities. We also support our Scholars financially, awarding £1000 per academic year of study.

For more information about the bursary, how to apply and eligibility criteria, please see the RTS website.

Our staff

You can visit our department pages to read more about the expertise of other members of the Department of Computing & Informatics, and register now to come along and meet some of them.

On this course you will be taught by staff with relevant expertise and knowledge appropriate to the content of the unit. This could include senior academic staff, qualified professional practitioners and research students, many of whom are actively engaged in research and/or professional practice which is integrated into the teaching of this course. Please note that staff can change.

Dr Muntadher Sallal - Programme Leader

Dr Edward Apeh - Principal Academic in Computing

Dr Hasan Tahir - Lecturer in Computer Science (Cyber Security)

Dr Hasan Tahir has a bachelors and MS in Software Engineering. His PhD is from the University of Essex, UK in the field of Security. He actively researches the security of cyber physical system like IoT, Industry 4, healthcare systems, etc. His teaching interests also include information security management, cloud computing security, network security, computer security, human computer interaction.

Dr Andrew M'manga - Lecturer in Computer Science (Cyber Security)

Dr Alessandro Bruno – Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in Computer Vision

Alessandro Bruno is a Lecturer in Computer Science in the Department of Computing and Informatics at BU. He received his PhD in Computer Engineering in 2012 from Palermo University, defending a thesis on texture and local keypoint analysis for advanced image inspection. He worked, in order, at CVIP (Computer Vision and Image Processing) group from Palermo University, at INAF (Italian Institute for Astrophysics), at NCCA (National Centre for Computer Animation) from BU. He was as a research visitor at UCL (University College London) at the Mullard Space Science Laboratory. He currently serves as a member of programme committee for international scientific conferences and guest editor of Journal of Imaging. He has a track record on Image and Video Forensics, Visual Attention and Visual Saliency, Biomedical Imaging, Crowd Behaviour Analysis. He mostly carries out his research activities using both low-level image feature analysis and deep learning architectures.

View Dr Alessandro Bruno's staff profile

Course changes

Changes for 2022

Date	Changes to this course
01/10/2021	Where the change was made: Fees box Change: Placement fee for September 2022 entry amended to £1,850 Previous text: £850

Changes in 2020

Date	Changes to this course
01/06/2020	Where the change was made: Course details Changes: Final year module “Cybercrime, Forensic Law and Practice” changed title to “Cybercrime”.

Changes in 2017

Date	Changes to this course
14/11/2017	Where the change was made:Fees Change: After an annual review of the placement year tuition fee, a price increase in line with current inflation, equating to 3% has been introduced. Previous text: £790
30/9/2017	Where the change was made:Course details Change: Changes to all core and option units for students starting in September 2018 onwards Previous text: See Programme Specification for details
03/03/2017	Where the change was made: Programme specification Change: Change the assessment of the Information Assurance unit from 50% examination and 50% coursework to one single 100% coursework element (5,000 words) Previous text: 50% examination, 50% coursework
06/09/2017	Where the change was made: Key facts and 2018 entry requirements Change: 104 - 120 tariff points including a minimum of 2 A-levels or equivalent Previous text: The entry requirements for this course are 104-120 tariff points from 3 A-levels
06/09/2017	Where the change was made: 2018 entry requirements Change: GCSE English and Mathematics grade C (or grade 4 in the reformed GCSE grading) or equivalent qualifications. Previous text: This course requires a minimum of 4 GCSEs grades A* - C (or grade 4 or above in the newly reformed GCSE grading) including Maths and English or equivalent qualifications.

What employers think

Detective Superintendent Mark Callaghan

Cyber-crime is a fast growing area with criminals exploiting the speed, convenience and facelessness of the internet to commit a range of criminal activities.

What our students say

Harrison South

This course is focused on the real world, how you’re going to be able to apply it in a practical sense.

Hear from our staff

Dr Christos Gatzidis

It’s important not to disregard the impact of a BU education on an individual such as attention to deadlines, professionalism, facilitation of organised teamwork, and many others.

Statistics shown throughout this page are taken from Unistats and BU institutional data unless otherwise stated.